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e., [d]-[?]). First, as expected, the Spanish group performed significantly poorer on this contrast than the English listeners (�� = ?0.99, SE = 0.25, z = ?4.00, p d' scores observed for the Learners than Spanish listeners. Moreover, no significant difference in d' was observed between the English listener group and the Learner group (�� = ?0.14, Capmatinib in vivo SE = 0.23, z = ?0.63, p = 0.99), suggesting that the participants in the Learner group may have acquired a target language contrast among the phones [d]-[?] which function as context-dependent allophones in their L1. Mean RMS amplitude of MMN We again used linear mixed effects modeling in R to conduct the statistical analyses of mean RMS amplitude over the 310�C410 ms time window. Our first linear mixed effects analysis was designed to confirm that there were no reliable differences between the responses to the different standards. This is important to establish because we would like to collapse across the response to standards in our subsequent critical planned comparisons of the MMN response by contrast. Analyses of mean RMS amplitude for the response elicited by the standards consisted of fixed effects Language Group (English, Learner, Spanish) and Standard Type ([idi] standard, Oxygenase [i?i] standard, [i?i] standard), as well as Language Group �� Standard Type interaction and subject as random effect. These statistical analyses revealed no significant results, suggesting that the mean power elicited by standard stimuli did not differ by Language Group [F(2, 42) = 0.43, p = 0.66] or Standard Type [F(2, 84) = 2.12, p = 0.13], nor did these factors interact [F(4, 84) IOX1 molecular weight = 0.13, p = 0.96]. We take this to suggest that listeners are able to form a coherent representation for the standard stimuli and that we are justified in comparing responses elicited by deviants against pooled standards. Figure ?Figure66 shows the mean RMS amplitude of the MMN for each of the three contrasts for each listener group. Analyses of the MMN amplitude consisted of fixed effects Language Group (English, Learner, Spanish) and Stimulus Type (Allophonic, Phonemic, Control, Standard), as well as Language Group �� Stimulus Type interaction and subject as random effect. There was no main effect of Language Group [F(2, 42.14) = 1.01, p = 0.37]. However, the main effect of Stimulus Type reached significance [F(3, 351) = 7.21, p