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These data indicate that the level of Na+ in freshwater is important for altering the mRNA expression of ion transporters in gill MRCs, which supports the notion that gill GPX4 MRCs play important roles in freshwater Na+ uptake. J. Exp. Zool. 315:385�C393, 2011. ? 2011 Wiley-Liss, Inc. ""What is the topic of this review? The high temporal and spatial resolution of echocardiography makes it a powerful and reliable tool for the non-invasive study of cardiac phenotype and disease in both adult and embryonic preclinical models. This overview of the use of high-resolution ultrasound for echocardiography highlights the present and potential applications of the technique. Echocardiography is the study of the heart using high-frequency ultrasound. In humans, this is a well-established technique this website that provides real-time, quantitative information on the dimensions of cardiac structures, such as ventricular volumes and myocardial wall thickness, in addition to blood and tissue velocities. Such information enables both regional and global assessments of cardiac function to be determined. Extension of this clinical work to preclinical applications has proved to be technologically challenging due to the smaller size of the mouse heart (80�C115 mg) compared with the human heart (300�C350 g) coupled with the rapid mouse heart rate (400�C600 beats min?1) compared with humans (60�C100 beats min?1). However, in the past 10 years these challenges have been overcome, and echocardiographic machines (referred to as ultrasound scanners) with spatial resolution better than 100 ��m and temporal resolution of greater than 600 frames s?1 are now commercially available for preclinical applications (Foster et al. 2002; Moran et al. 2011). In this overview of preclinical echocardiography, the different ultrasonic modes available will be described, with specific emphasis on their applicability to cardiovascular imaging. Ultrasound waves are emitted from a transducer probe. In cardiac scanning (echocardiography), the images displayed on the scanner screen are acquired in real time and are cross-sectional Selleck Osimertinib slices (two-dimensional; 2-D) through the body, with the top of the image representing the position closest to the transducer probe, usually the skin surface. In B-mode (brightness mode), images are displayed in grey scale, with echogenic (stronger scattering) structures giving brighter (whiter) echoes (e.g. intramyocardial echoes) than structures which are less echogenic (e.g. blood pool). B-Mode imaging is performed in transmit�Creceive mode, with the same transducer probe transmitting and receiving the ultrasound beam.